Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

1. What’s the difference between the words emigrate and immigrate?

			You emigrate from your country to another country.
			You immigrate into another country.

Paul Brian’s Common Errors in English

2. How do we know whether the contractions “I’d“, “you’d“, “he’d“, etc. mean I had or I would, etc.?

The key here is to understand the context of the sentence where the contraction is written or spoken, and also to think about the word that follows the contraction. In most cases this word will be either and infinitive (in which case it is would) or a past participle (in which case it is had):

			I’d (would) lend you the car, but I need it.
			She’d (had) been shopping all morning.

The word would cannot be followed by a past participle and, likewise, had cannot be followed by an infinitive.

3. What’s the difference between who and whom?

			Who are you?
			To Whom It May Concern

Paul Brian’s Common Errors in English

4. What’s the meaning of the informal expression ain’t?

“I ain’t misbehaving …”

Paul Brian’s Common Errors in English

5. What’s the difference between the word read in the simple present and simple past?

The difference (apart from the past and present meanings) is the pronunciation. In the present form, read rhymes with “reed”. In the past form, read rhymes with “red”.

			I read (reed) a book every night when I get into bed.
			I read (red) the newspaper this morning.

6. What’s the meaning of the slang expression gotcha?

“I’ve gotcha now!” said the child as she caught her brother in the game.

Gotcha actually means “got you”, and is written that way because, when said quickly, “got you” sounds like that. It is the same reason that we say “gonna” instead of “going to”:

7. What form follows the verb help?

Help is unusual in that it can be followed either by object + infinitive or by object + to + infinitive:

			She helped me do my homework.
			She helped me to do my homework.

The only possible difference is that, in British English at least, the first form is slightly more informal than the second.

8. How do we say the year 2000?

We say the year two thousand, possibly because we are shortening it from two thousand years A.D. (anno domini) . However, we should remember that in 1900 we said “nineteen hundred” and not “one thousand nine hundred”, so there does not seem to be any real logic behind it. Nor is it clear when (or if) we will stop saying “two thousand and …” and begin saying “twenty …”.

9. What’s the meaning of the word breakfast?

I was very hungry after sleeping so long, so I ate a big breakfast.

The word means, literally, to break a fast. A fast is a period of time in which we do not eat (in this case, during the night while we are sleeping). When we eat, our fast is broken.

10. What’s the difference between the words hanged and hung?

			He hung up his coat as he came in the door.
			He was the last man to be hanged for murder in the UK.

Paul Brian’s Common Errors in English

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

“Is splitting of an infinitive considered bad English?”

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/nonerrors.html#split

“How do you change singular to plural?”

http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/NOUNS2.cfm

“What are figures of speech?”

http://www.robibrad.demon.co.uk/Idioms.htm

“When do we use had better?”

http://www.better-english.com/grammarexplanations/hadbetter.htm

“What is the difference between slang and Cockney?”

According to the Cambridge Online Dictionary slang is:

informal language, which might include words and meanings which are not polite and which might stay in use only for a short time. It is used by particular groups of people who know each other, and is usually spoken rather than written:

			schoolboy slang
			army slang
			British slang
			a slang word
			a slang expression
			‘Chicken’ is slang for someone who isn’t very brave.

Cockney is: (the way of speaking of) a person from East London, especially the poorer part:

			My father is a Cockney.
			You won’t hear much real Cockney spoken unless you go to the East End of London.

and Cockney rhyming slang:

refers to slang which is used instead of a word or phrase and which rhymes with it.

In Cockney rhyming slang, you say ‘apples and pears’ to mean ’stairs’.

In short, Cockney (rhyming slang) is just one type of slang.

“What’s the difference between pray and prey?”

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/pray.html

“What’s the meaning of concordance?”

The Cambridge Online Dictionary says:

concordance noun [C] SPECIALIZED

a book or list which is an alphabetical collection of the words used in a writer’s work with information about where the words can be found and in which sentences.

			a Shakespeare/Biblical concordance
			a concordance of magazine articles
			FORMAL a concordance to Keats

concordance verb [T] SPECIALIZED

We’ve got a computer program which will concordancenewspaper texts.

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

What’s the difference between I and me?

I is the first person singular subject pronoun. Me is the first person singular object pronoun.

			I gave it to him.
			He gave it to me.

Confusion occurs in sentences like:

You can return it to either Peter or me/I

The secret here is to remove the other person (Peter) from the sentence. Which is correct?

			You can return it to I.
			You can return it to me.

The second, of course, and so me is the correct pronoun to use.

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/myself.html

“How many variations are there of structures like: the bigger the better“?

We use comparatives with the … the … to say that things change at the same time, or that two (apparently) different quantities are related.

			The bigger the dog gets, the more savage it becomes.
			The more “private” the utilities become, the more public and political becomes the outcry against them.
			The brighter its colour, the more poisonous it is.

Theoretically, any adjective can be used in its comparative form in this way. A short form of this structure is used in the expression:

The more the merrier

and in sentences ending in the better:

			And the more they’re together, and the more they have a laugh together, the better team spirit becomes.
			The fewer the risks that the savings institution takes, the better the chances of your money being there when it is needed.
			The sooner the patient is under the care of a skilled team the better the prognosis.

To see examples of this structure, look at the Web Concordancer:

Type the more or the better into the “search string” field and choose any corpus.

“How do you pronounce the word there’re?”

This word rhymes with the words fairer, bearer or carer.

For a related item, see:

http://www.wsu.edu/%7Ebrians/errors/their.html

“Which is correct: religion leaders or religious leaders?”

Religion is a noun meaning “the belief in and worship of a god or gods, or any such system of belief and worship”

			She loves to discuss religion.
			He practises the Jewish religion.

Cambridge International Dictionary of English

Religious is an adjective meaning “of or concerned with religion”.

The government wants to increase the amount of religious education in schools.

Cambridge International Dictionary of English

Hence the correct form is “religious leaders”, because the adjective religious describes the noun “leaders”.

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

Practise with a grammar game

actually and now

actually
adverb [not gradable]
in fact, really.

			I didn’t actually see her – I just heard her voice.
			I only intended to be there for a few days, but I actually ended up staying for a whole month.

now (AT PRESENT)
adverb [not gradable]
at the present time, not in the past or future; immediately

			She used to be a teacher, but now she works in publishing.
			Where do you live now?
			I may eat something later, but I’m not hungry now.
			Many people now own a video recorder.
			I don’t want to wait until tomorrow, I want it now!

canal and channel

canal
noun [C]
a long channel of water which is artificially made either for boats to travel along or for taking water from one area to another

			Canals were the main method of transporting goods until the mid-19th century.
			In Britain nowadays, canals are used mainly for pleasure, by people travelling in long, narrow boats called barges or narrow boats.
			The Panama Canal provides a crucial shipping link between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

channel (PASSAGE)
noun [C]
a passage for water or other liquids to flow along, or a part of a river or other area of water which is deep and wide enough to provide a route for ships to travel along

			We tried digging a channel to lower the water level but that didn’t work.
			There are drainage/irrigation channels all over this flat agricultural land.
			The juice is extracted and runs down this channel here into a large container.
			Wooden posts mark the deep-water/navigable channel into the harbour.
			The boats all have to pass through this narrow channel.

control and check

control
verb [T]
to order, limit, instruct, or rule (something or someone’s actions or behaviour)

			If you can’t control your dog put it on a lead!
			You’re going to have to learn to control that temper of yours!
			Bring your leg slowly up to meet your head, controlling it all the time.
			The temperature in here is controlled by a thermostat.
			The laws controlling drugs are very strict in this country.
			I find this car difficult to control at high speeds.
			The government have been trying to control spending.

check (EXAMINE)
verb
to make certain that (something or someone) is correct, safe or suitable by examining it or them quickly

			You should always check your oil, water and tyres before taking your car on a long trip. [T]
			I’ve checked her references and she seems very suitable for the job. [T]
			Customs stopped us and checked (=searched) our bags for alcohol and cigarettes. [T]
			After I had finished the exam, I checked (through/over) my answers for mistakes. [T]
			The doctor will call next week to check on your progress. [I]

economic and economical

economic
adjective
relating to the system of trade and industry by which the wealth of a country is made and used

			The country has been in a very poor economic state ever since the decline of its two major industries.
			The government’s economic policies have led us into the worst recession for years.

economical
adjective
relating to the intentional saving of money or, less commonly, the saving of time, energy, words, etc.

			There’s an increasing demand for cars which are more economical on fuel.
			What’s the most economical way of heating this building?
			She’s very economical – saving money seems to come naturally to her.

hard and hardly

hard (DIFFICULT)
adjective
difficult to understand or do

			There were some really hard questions in the exam.
			It’s hard to say which of them is lying.
			It’s hard being a single mother.
			Her handwriting is very hard to read.
			He’s a hard man to please.

hard (SOLID)
adjective
firm and solid; not easy to bend, cut or break

			There was a heavy frost last night and the ground is still hard.
			Heating the clay makes it hard.
			The ground’s impossible to dig – it’s as hard as iron/stone/a rock.

hardly (ONLY JUST)
adverb [not gradable]
only just; almost not

			Can you speak louder – I can hardly hear you.
			The play had hardly started when there was a power cut.
			My youngest daughter is so excited – she can hardly wait until tomorrow.
			You could hardly stand up because the wind was so strong.
			He hardly ate anything/He ate hardly anything – he must be ill.
			Hardly had a moment passed before the door creaked open.
			We hardly ever (=almost never) go to concerts.

invaluable and worthless

invaluable
adjective [not gradable]
extremely useful

			The new job should provide Jennings with invaluable experience.
			Such data will prove invaluable to researchers studying fish populations.
			We received invaluable help from many students in our research.

worthless
adjective
having no value in money.

			A £30 million fund has been created to reimburse those people whose tickets became worthless following the collapse of the airline.
			Investors must be careful not to be left with worthless shares from the large number of companies that are going bankrupt.

worthless
adjective
unimportant or useless.

			She was criticised so much by her employers that she began to feel worthless.
			More than 90% of the refugees are refused entry at the borders, their passports and visas forged or worthless.

To see many examples of the use of these words, see the Web Concordancer. Type any of the words into the ’search string’ field, select any corpus in the ’select corpus’ field, and then click on the ’search for concordances’ button.

accept
verb
to agree to take (something), or to take (something) as satisfactory, reasonable, true, etc.

			The former minister faces seven charges of accepting bribes. [T]
			Do you accept credit cards? [T]
			She was in London to accept an award for her latest novel. [T]
			As a token of our gratitude for all the work you have done, we would like you to accept this small gift. [T]
			I offered her an apology but she wouldn’t accept it. [T]
			The new telephones will accept (=take) coins of any denomination. [T]
			I accept (=take) full responsibility for the failure of the plan. [T]
			The manuscript was accepted for publication last week. [T]
			She was accepted as (=It was agreed that she could be) a full member of the society. [T]
			His fellow workers refused to accept him (=to include him as one of their group). [T]
			He still hasn’t accepted the situation (=realized that he cannot change it). [T]
			The police refused to accept (=believe) her version of the story. [T]
			I can’t accept (=make myself believe) that there’s nothing we can do. [+ that clause]
			I don’t accept (=agree) that government policy is at fault. [+ that clause]

agree
verb [I]
to have the same opinion, or to accept (a suggestion or idea)

			I know what you think we should do, but I’m afraid I don’t agree.
			Ann and I never seem to agree.
			I agree about Claire – she’s not the right person for this job.
			If you agree with an idea, action or organization, you approve of it.
			I agree with letting children learn at their own pace. [I]
			My father and I don’t agree on very much. [I]
			I agree whole-heartedly with Paul. [I]
			All the members of the jury agree that Mr Thomas is guilty. [+ that clause]
			Experts seem unable to agree whether the drug is safe or not. [+ wh- word]
			“You’re absolutely right,” agreed George. [+ clause]
			I suggested that we should meet, and they agreed (=said yes). [I]
			The bank has agreed (=is willing) to lend me £5000 to buy a new car. [+ to infinitive]

(British) To agree something is to accept it.

We finally agreed a deal.

To agree to something is to agree it.

Both sides in the conflict have agreed to the terms of the peace treaty.

(2) avoid and prevent.

avoid
verb [T]
to stay away from (someone or something), or prevent (something) from happening or not allow yourself to do (something)

			You really should avoid him – he’ll only try to borrow money from you.
			Do you think Tim’s avoiding me? I haven’t seen him for a month.
			I try to avoid supermarkets on Saturdays – they’re always so busy.
			I try to avoid going shopping on Saturdays. [+ v-ing]
			The report studiously avoided any mention of the controversial plan. [T]
			The plane narrowly avoided disaster when one of the engines cut out on take-off. [T]
			I left the pub to avoid a fight (=prevent a fight from happening).
			Unnecessary paperwork should be avoided (=prevented) at all costs.
			The politicians were anxious to avoid (=prevent) the embarrassment of an environmental disaster.

prevent
verb [T]
to stop (something) happening or (someone) doing something

			Label your suitcases to prevent confusion.
			His disability prevents him from walking.
			BRITISH Are you trying to prevent me speaking? [+ obj + v-ing]

(3) borrow and lend.

borrow (RECEIVE)
verb
to get or receive (something) from someone with the intention of giving it back after a period of time

			Could I borrow your bike from (NOT STANDARD off) you until next week? [T]
			She used to borrow money and not bother to pay it back. [T]
			Brazil has had to borrow heavily to survive. [I]
			He borrowed (=took away for a particular period) a novel from the library. [T]
			FIGURATIVE English has borrowed (=takes and uses as its own) (many words) from French. [I/T]

lend
verb
to give (something) to someone for a short period of time, expecting it to be given back

			She doesn’t like lending her books. [T]
			If you need a coat I can lend you one/lend one to you. [+ two objects]

A bank or other organization that lends gives money to you and you agree that you will pay the money back in the future, usually with additional money added to the original amount.

			The bank refuses to lend to students. [I]
			The bank agreed to lend him $5000/lend $5000 to him. [+ two objects]

Common Errors in English.

(4) comprehensive and understanding.

comprehensive (FULL)
adjective
complete and including everything that is necessary

			We offer you a comprehensive training in all aspects of the business.
			Is this list comprehensive or are there some names missing?
			He has written a fully comprehensive guide to Rome.

understanding
adjective APPROVING
An understanding person is good at knowing how someone else is feeling or what their situation is, and can forgive them if they do something wrong.

			He had expected her to be horrified, but she was actually very understanding.
			He gave me an understanding smile.

(5) rob and steal.

rob
verb [T]
to take money or property illegally from (a place, organization or person), often using threats or violence

			The terrorists financed themselves by robbing banks.
			My wallet’s gone! I’ve been robbed!
			They robbed the company of £2 million.

steal (TAKE AWAY)
verb
to take (something) without the permission or knowledge of the owner and keep it

			The boys were charged with stealing bikes from a house in Summerhill Rd. [T]
			The number of cars which are stolen every year has risen considerably. [T]
			She came home to find she’d had her TV and video stolen (=someone had stolen them). [T]
			When the book was published we found that the author had stolen several of our ideas. [T]
			The firm is now accusing a small band of its former employees of stealing trade secrets. [T]

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

Practise with a grammar game

What’s the difference between affect and effect?

			I’m pleased to say that the changes don’t affect us.
			The effect of the drought on the economy is very serious.

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/affect.html

What’s the difference between bare and bear?

			The cupboard is bare.
			I don’t know how you can bear to live here.

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/bare.html

What’s the difference between continual and continuous?

			The complaints about that teacher are continual.
			There was continuous snow for a fortnight?.

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/continual.html

What’s the difference between advice and advise?

			I gave them some advice.
			Could you advise us on a souvenir to buy?

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/advice.html

Please note, that practice/practise and device/devise follow the same rules as the previous example.

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/practice.html

What’s the difference between lose and loose?

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/lose.html

			Don’t lose the map or we’ll never get there.
			It is best to wear loose-fitting clothes in summer.

What’s the difference between passed and past?

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/passed.html

			When we were on holiday the time passed very quickly.
			He went past so quickly that we didn’t recognise him.

What’s the difference between principal and principle?

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/principal.html

			The principal cause of his troubles is his laziness.
			It is a matter of principle.

What’s the difference between quiet and quite?

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/quiet.html

			You must be absolutely quiet during the examination.
			It was quite a long time until the train came.

What’s the difference between stationary and stationery?

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/stationary.html

			The cars were stationary for almost an hour before the traffic jam began to clear.
			Pens, paper, staplers and paper clips are all types of stationery.

What’s the difference between weather and whether?

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/weather.html

			We had beautiful sunny weather all week.
			I don’t know whether I’ll go to the party or not.

All links to Paul Brian’s Common Errors in English .

To see many examples of the use of these commonly confused words, see the Web Concordancer.

Type any of the words in the ’search string’ field, select any corpus in the ’select corpus’ field, and then click on the ’search for concordances’ button.