Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

Practise with a grammar game

What’s the difference between you’re and your?

			I hope you’re well.
			Don’t forget your coat.

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/your.html

What’s the difference between it’s and its?

			It’s my coat.
			The dog buried its bone.

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/its.html

What’s the difference between who’s and whose?

			Who’s your best friend?
			Whose coat is this?

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/who’s.html

What’s the difference between they’re and there and their?

			They’re good friends.
			There are some biscuits in the fridge.
			Their coats are the same colour.

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/their.html

All links to Paul Brian’s Common Errors in English .

To see many examples of these structures, see the Web Concordancer.

In the ’search string’ field type in you’re, your, it’s, its, who’s, whose, they’re, there or their. Select any corpus in the ’select corpus’ field, and then click on the ’search for concordances’ button.

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

The verb ‘to be‘ is, in most cases, what we call a stative verb. These are verbs which refer to states rather than actions, and are hardly ever used in continuous (progressive) verb forms, i.e. present continuous, past continuous, future continuous, etc.

			I am sad at the moment (NOT I am being sad …)
			He was in the kitchen when the phone rang (NOT He was being in the kitchen …)
			I will be in Tenerife this time next week (NOT I will be being in Tenerife …)

However, some verbs that are usually stative can be used in continuous verb forms when they have certain meanings. Be is one of these verbs.

The following sentences are correct because be is used to describe an action and not a state:

			The children are being very naughty (= They are doing naughty things)
			He was being careless (= He was doing something carelessly)

Compare these to the following examples, where be is used to describe a state and not an action:

			I hope you are well. (NOT I hope you are being well).
			He was very happy when his friends arrived. (NOT He was being very happy …)

The other use of the word being is in passive verb forms. We usually make these forms by using tenses of the verb ‘to be‘ followed by a past participle. The following forms are quite common:

Present progressive (am/are/is being + past participle)

The shop is closed because it is being renovated.

Past progressive (was/were being + past participle)

I knew that he was being dishonest.

Passive –ing forms (being + past participle)

They look forward to being invited.

For more information on the use of stative verbs see the following web sites:

http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/stat.htm
http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/progressive.htm

be + infinitive

Michael Swan mentions the following uses of this structure:

Plans and arrangements: to talk about plans and arrangements (in a formal way), especially when they are official.

The President is to visit Nigeria next month.

Fate: to talk about things which are/were ‘hidden in the future’.

I thought we were saying goodbye for ever. But we were to meet again, many years later.

Pre-conditions: in if-clauses, when the main clause expresses something that must happen first if something else is to happen.

We must hurry if we are to get there by lunchtime.

Orders: to give orders.

You can go to the party, but you are not to be back late.

Be + passive infinitive: the passive infinitive (to be + past participle) is often used in notices and instructions.

			This cover is not to be removed.
			The medicine is to be taken three times a day.

(Michael Swan, Practical English Usage, OUP, pp. 87-88)

To see examples of this structure in use, see the Web Concordancer:

http://www.edict.com.hk/concordance/

In the ’search string’ field, type “am or is or are or was or were + any common infinitive form, e.g. to have, to do, to get, etc.”. Then select a corpus in the ’select corpus’ field (We recommend one of The Times corpuses), and click on the ’search for concordances’ button.

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

Practise with a grammar game

We can use as if when we want to say what something or someone seems like. As though can be used in exactly the same way:

			He looks as if/though he hasn’t slept all night. (His appearance suggests this, i.e. he looks very tired)
			It feels as if/though summer’s on the way. (The warm air and sunny sky suggests this)
			It sounds as if/though they’ve arrived. (The sound of a car stopping, doors opening, people talking outside suggest this)

We can also use as if and as though with a past verb tense, to suggest that something is unreal:

			She behaves as if/though she were the Queen. (She obviously isn’t the Queen)
			He walks as if/though he were an old man. (But in fact he’s a young man)
			They talk as if/though the world were coming to an end. (Of course it’s not)

Compare the following two sentences:

			He looks as if/though he’s sick. (He is sick)
			He talks as if/though he were sick. (But actually he’s well)

In informal speech, we can use like instead of as if/though:

			He looks like he hasn’t slept all night.
			It feels like summer’s on the way.
			It sounds like they’ve arrived.

To see many examples of the use of these expressions, see the Web Concordancer. Type as if or as though into the ’search string’ field, select any corpus in the ’select corpus’ field, and then click on the ’search for concordances’ button.

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

The word as is very flexible, and can be used in many different ways.

As can be used for comparison, in the following ways:

Before a prepositional phrase:

			In Argentina, as in Australia, they eat a lot of meat.
			In the 2nd World War, as in the first, millions of civilians were killed.

Followed by a clause:

			When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
			He eats as the Portuguese do – a small breakfast and then a great big lunch.

http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/l.html#like

In similes (writer’s or speaker’s references to things with comparison between them and what is being discussed):

			He was as red as a beetroot.
			I’m feeling as fresh as a daisy.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/listenandwrite/similes/whatiss.htm

As can also be used in the same way to express inequality:

			I don’t get paid as much as she does.
			The weekend wasn’t as sunny as the week days before it.

http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/ADJECTIVES10.cfm

The word as can also be used to talk about the function, job or role of a person or thing:

			We can use this knife as a screwdriver.
			I used to work as a shop assistant.
			His greatest performance was as Professor Higgins in Pygmalion.

As can also be used in the same way as “because”:

			As he refused to behave himself, I had to send him to the headmaster.
			I stayed at home, as it was raining all day.

We also use as after certain verbs followed by an object, and certain verbs in passive forms:

			They described him as a pleasant man who liked to help others.
			I see her as a bad influence on the other children.
			She was never thought of as a good actress at school.
			He was recognised as the country’s greatest leader.

As is also used in some common expressions:

			Please phone me as soon as you can.
			His dog is aggressive as well as stupid.
			You can go out as long as you come home before midnight.
			As far as I am concerned, we can proceed.

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/asfaras.html

For more information on different uses of as see:

To see hundreds of examples of the different uses of the word as, see the Web Concordancer:

http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/scripts/concordance/WWWConcappE.htm

Just type as into the ’search string’ field, select any corpus in the ’select corpus’ field, and then click on the ’search for concordances’ button.

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

Practise with a grammar game

use of a and an

pronunciation of the

For the sake of convenience, many teachers tell their students that the indefinite article a is used before consonants, while an is used before vowels. In most cases, this is true:

	A cat			An apple
	A dog			An elephant
	A house			An ice-cream
	A man			An orange
	A woman			An umbrella

However, the choice between a and an actually depends on pronunciation, not spelling. Thus, a is used before a consonant sound, even if it is written as a vowel, and an is used before a vowel sound, even if it is written as a consonant:

			A uniform
			A one-sided game
			An hour
			An NCO

Some people say an, not a, before words beginning with h when the first syllable is not stressed:

			An hotel (a hotel is more common)
			An historical novel (a historical … is more common)

When an abbreviation takes an article, it depends on the pronunciation of the first letter of the abbreviation:

			An NCO
			A UN spokesman.

For more information, and quizzes, on a and an, see the following web sites:

			http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/a.html#a
			http://www.rhlschool.com/eng2n26.htm

The information about a and an above is directly relevant to the pronunciation of the definite article, the.

This word has two pronunciations, depending on whether it comes before a consonant sound or a vowel sound.

The is pronounced  before a vowel sound, even if it is written as a consonant, and  before a consonant sound, even if it is written as a vowel:

			The () university is in the middle of town.
			The () one-way street near my house is closed.
			The () honest answer to your question is “No”.
			The () FBI is investigating the case.

The same applies for abbreviations as for a and an (see above). Acronyms (words formed from the intital letters of a group of words), should be treated as words, and not abbreviations:

			the SALT treaties
			the RAM on my computer

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

Briefly, we can say that apostrophes have three uses:

1) To show possession in nouns

We add an apostrophe and “s” after all singular nouns and after plural nouns that do not end in “s”:

Susan’s book; Pete’s dog; the children’s toys; the men’s room.

We add an apostrophe without “s” after plural nouns ending in “s”:

The Beckhams’ mansion; the dogs’ dinners.

Note that we do not use apostrophes with the possessive pronouns hers, its, ours and yours, but we do use them with possessive pronouns that end in “-one” or “-body”:

			Give the cat its dinner; Those books are ours.
			It must be somebody’s; Everyone’s papers are on the table.

2) To represent missing letters

We use apostrophes in contractions like:

Didn’t (Did not); There’s (There is); We’ll (We will)

(3) In some plural forms

Some sources (e.g. Practical English Usage, Michael Swan, Oxford University Press, 1997) indicate that we can use apostrophes if we want to make a plural form of a noun that does not normally have one:

I am afraid there are too many if’s and but’s for me to approve the plan.

The same source suggests that they can also be used in the plurals of letters, and with abbreviations and numbers:

			The manager crossed the t’s and dotted the i’s of the document.
			The 1990’s were very exciting years (also 1990s).

Other sources (e.g. Apostrophe Protection Society), however, indicate that apostrophes have no place in plurals because they do not represent missing letters or possession, and that the examples above should be written:

			I am afraid there are too many IFs and BUTs for me to approve the plan.
			The manager crossed the Ts and dotted the Is of the document.
			The 1990s were very exciting years.

The same source points out that this sort of use is more appropriate to spoken English than written English, and that in the latter the best option would be to write the sentences in a different way in order to avoid the use of apostrophes:

			I am afraid there are too many uncertainties for me to approve the plan.
			The manager corrected / approved the document.

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

Practise with a grammar game

What is the correct order of adjectives before a noun?

Michael Swan (Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1997) writes:

“Unfortunately, the rules for adjective order are very complicated, and different grammars disagree about the details” p. 8

He does, however, go on to list some of the most important rules:

1. Adjectives of colour, origin, material and purpose usually go in that order.

Colour

origin

material

purpose

noun

red

Spanish

leather

riding

boots

A

brown

German

beer

mug

A

Venetian

glass

flower

vase

2. Other adjectives usually go before words of colour, origin, material and purpose. It is impossible to give exact rules, but adjectives of size, length and height often come first.

			The round glass table (NOT the glass round table)
			A big, modern brick house (NOT a modern, big brick house)
			Long, flexible steel poles
			A tall, ancient oak-tree

3. Adjectives which express judgements or attitudes usually come before all others. Examples are lovely, definite, pure, absolute, extreme, perfect, wonderful, silly.

			A lovely, long, cool drink
			Who’s that silly fat man over there?

4. Numbers usually go before adjectives.

			Six large eggs
			The second big shock

First, next and last most often go before one, two, three etc.

			The first three days
			My last two jobs.”

pp. 8-9

He does not mention age, which would normally go after adjectives of size, length and height, but before colour, origin, material and purpose.

			A big old straw hat.
			A charming young university student.

Thus, a complete list could be:

(article) + number + judgement/attitude + size, length, height + age + colour + origin + material + purpose + noun

			a lovely long black leather coat
			a valuable Dutch Impressionist painting
			a rustic old stone holiday cottage

For more information about adjective order, see:

http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/adjord.htm

http://www.englishclub.net/grammar/adjectives/order2.shtml

For exercises on adjective order, see:

http://www.better-english.com/grammar/adjord.htm

http://www.better-english.com/grammar/adjord2.htm

http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/adjord1.htm

http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/adjord2.htm

http://www.aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj/quizzes/vm/adjorder.html

http://www.englishoutlook.com/focus/grammar/adjorder.html

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

Practise with a grammar game

When we want to add information to what we (or someone else) has said, there are a number of different words and expressions that we can use.

Probably the most common and simplest two words to use are the adverbs too and also.

Too (adverb): (esp. at the end of a sentence) in addition, also

			I’d like to come too.
			You’ll need dictionaries – and bring a notebook too.
			“I love Thornton’s chocolates.” “I like them too./INFORMAL Me too.”

Cambridge Online Dictionary.

Also (adverb): additionally

			She’s a photographer and also writes books.
			I’m cold, and I’m also hungry and tired.

Cambridge Online Dictionary.

The following words and expressions can also be used to add information:

Additionally (adverb):

			We were additionally (=as well as everything else) faced with trying to find somewhere to stay at two o’clock in the morning.
			Additionally, we request a deposit of $200 in advance.

Cambridge Online Dictionary.

(And) another thing: is used to introduce one more in a series of arguments or complaints.

And another thing, why didn’t you tell me you were going out?

Cambridge Online Dictionary.

As well (as) (that): in addition (to)

			Invite Emlyn – and Simon as well.
			I want to visit Andrew as well as Martin.
			He is rich and as well as that he’s generous.

Cambridge Online Dictionary.

Besides (adverb, preposition): in addition to; also

			Do you play any other sports besides ice-skating and darts?
			She told me that she has two other cars besides the one she drives to work.
			I’ve had job offers from two firms of international lawyers and plenty more besides.
			She won’t mind your being late – besides, it’s hardly your fault.

Cambridge Online Dictionary.

Furthermore (adverb) FORMAL: in addition; more importantly

			I suggest we go to the Italian restaurant – it’s very good and furthermore it’s very cheap.
			I don’t know what happened to Rupert Ford and furthermore I don’t care.

Cambridge Online Dictionary.

In addition: You use in addition when you want to mention another item connected with the subject you are discussing.

The workers have not been paid for two months. In addition, we owe our suppliers £50,000.

In any case: (=and also)

I don’t want to go and in any case, I haven’t been invited.

Cambridge Online Dictionary.

Moreover (adverb) FORMAL: (used to add information) also and more importantly

It was a good car, and it was, moreover, a fair price they were asking for it.

Cambridge Online Dictionary.

On top of (that) : in addition to (esp. something unpleasant)

			We missed the train, and on top of that we had to wait for two hours for the next one.
			On top of his late arrival, he was drunk!

Cambridge Online Dictionary.

What’s more: (additionally and more importantly)

He won the race, and what’s more, he broke the world record.

Cambridge Online Dictionary.

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

What is the difference between when and while?

Both when and while can be used to talk about actions or situations that take place at the same time.

Swan identifies the following differences:

1 Backgrounds

We can use both words to introduce a longer ‘background’ action or situation, which is/was going on when something else happens/happened.

			Somebody broke into the house when they were playing cards.
			While they were playing cards, somebody broke into the house.

Note that when and while clauses can go at the beginning or end of sentences.

2 Simultaneous long actions

We usually use while to say that two longer actions or situations go / went on at the same time.

While you were reading the paper, I was working.

If we are talking about ages and periods of life, we use when:

			When I was a child we lived in London (NOT While I was a child …)
			His parents died when he was twelve (NOT … while he was twelve)

3 Simultaneous short actions

We can use (just) when to say that two short actions or events happen / happened at the same time:

I thought of it (just) when you opened your mouth.

While is not possible in this situation.

4 Reduced clauses

It is often possible to leave out subject + be after when and while:

While/When in Germany, he got to know a family of musicians. (=While/When he was in Germany …)

Practical English Usage, Michael Swan, OUP, pp. 73-74

While vs whilst

There is no difference in meaning between these two words. In British English whilst is considered to be a more formal and literary word than while. The different spellings that exist today have their origins in changes to the words in Middle English and later. See http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-whi2.htm for an explanation.

For a quiz about when and while see the following website:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/
youmeus/learnit/learnitv257.shtml

For many examples of the use of when and while, see the Web Concordancer:

http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/scripts/concordance/WWWConcappE.htm

Type when or while into the ’search string’ field, select any corpus in the ’select corpus’ field, and then click on the ’search for concordances’ button.

Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.

Practise with a grammar game

We can use rather as an adverb of degree. It means “less than ‘very’ but more than ‘a little’. It can be used to modify adjectives, adverbs, noun phrases, comparative adjectives, too and verbs, and is used mainly with words and ideas that have negative meanings:

Cambridge Dictionaries Online gives the following examples:

rather (SMALL AMOUNT)
adverb [not gradable]
quite; to a slight degree

			It’s rather cold/difficult.
			Let me give you a different book – I think you’ll find it rather easier.
			The train was rather too crowded for a comfortable journey.
			The dress was rather more expensive than I was expecting it would be, so I didn’t buy it.
			She answered the telephone rather sleepily.
			I’ve rather foolishly lost their address.
			I rather think you should consider the trouble this decision will cause.
			I rather doubt I’ll be able to come to your party.
			She’s rather an egoistic, don’t you think?
			It’s a rather boring film.

Used with words and ideas that convey a positive meaning, rather means “unusually” or “unexpectedly”:

Cambridge Dictionaries Online gives the following examples:

rather (VERY)
adverb, predeterminer [not gradable]
very; to a large degree

			I was rather pleased to be invited to the wedding.
			Actually, I did rather well in my exams.
			He’s a rather nice man.
			He’s rather a nice man.

Cambridge Dictionaries Online also lists the following meanings for rather:

rather (MORE EXACTLY)
adverb more accurately; more exactly

			She’ll go to London on Thursday, or rather, she will if she has to.
			He’s my sister’s friend really, rather than mine.
			The dress is rather pink than purple.

Rather can also be used to express an opposite opinion.

			The ending of the war is not a cause for celebration, but rather for regret that it ever happened.
			No, I’m not tired. Rather the opposite in fact.

rather (PREFERENCE)
adverb
rather than in preference to; instead of

			I think I’d like to stay at home this evening rather than going out.
			Why don’t you wear the black shoes rather than the brown ones?
			He likes starting early rather than staying late.

Rather one person than another person means that the second person certainly does not want to do what the first person is doing.

“I’ve got to have two teeth out next week.”"Rather you than me.”

rather (YES)
interjection
ESPECIALLY BRITISH INFORMAL
certainly; yes

“Do you want to come out for dinner with us this evening?” “Rather!”

To see many examples of the use of rather, see the Web Concordancer. Type rather into the ’search string’ field, select any corpus in the ’select corpus’ field, and then click on the ’search for concordances’ button.

More information about rather:

http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/ADVERBS7.cfm
http://www.bartleby.com/64/C001/054.html
http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/IF10.cfm